CLASSIFICATION OF ESSAYS

 

According to the nature of essays, they are classified into the following categories :-

1. Narrative Essays :- An event or a series of events  is narrated in them. Their purpose is to present the series of real or imaginary events in a reliable way. Suggested outline for them is as follows :-

     For an Historical Event

i.   Introduction─ Date, Place, People, Occasion.

ii.  Circumstances, Incidents.

iii. Results.

iv  Reflections and Conclusions.

     For a Biography

i.   Introduction─ Early life, Parentage, Surroundings, Education.

ii.  Career, Rise to power, Most famous works.

iii. Last years.

iv. Conclusion─ Character, Influence.

2. Descriptive Essays :- They may contain a description of a person, place or thing in them. Their purpose is to present a picture. Suggested outline for them is as follows :-

     For Animals, Plants etc.

i.   Introduction─ kind (class, order, species), Origin.

ii.  Characteristics─ qualities, habits, appearance.

iii. How produced or obtained.

iv. Relation to man and nature (useful, attractive, harmful, etc.)

v.  Concluding remarks.  

     For Peoples

i.   Introduction─ A first glimpse.

ii.  Physical description.

iii. Characterization by (1) incident, (2) inference (from surroundings, gestures, voice, what the person says, does and think, what others say, do and think about him).

iv. Conclusion, Reflection.

     For  Places

i.   Introduction─ General Impression, Position, Size.

ii.  History.

iii. Buildings of particular interest.

iv. Industries.

v.  Special features.

vi. Concluding remarks.  

3.  Reflective Essays :- They may include such views or reflections as are generally of abstract nature. Their purpose is to express personal views. Suggested outline for them is as follows :-

  For any topic

i.   Introduction─ Definition or explanation.

ii.  Working and development of theme.

iii. Value.

iv. Effect.

v.  Concluding remarks.  

4.  Expository Essays :- They hold explanation of a topic. Their purpose is to shed light on the meaning.  Suggested outline for them is as follows :-

     For any topic

i.   Introduction─ Definition.

ii.  History.

iii. Explanation of the subject.

iv. Results- good or bad.

v.  Concluding remarks.  

5.  Imaginative Essays :- An imagination plays a free role in them. Tier purpose is to express an imagination into words. Suggested outline for them is as follows :-

     For any topic

i.   Introduction.

ii.  Explanation of the subject.                                                        

iii. Effect.

iv. Results─ good or bad.

v.  Concluding remarks.  

6. Argumentative Essays :- A topic relating to debate is given in them, and they are often set up in the form of a question or quotation.  Suggested outline for them is as follows :-

     For any topic

i.   Introduction─ stating case.

ii.  Pro. Scoring point, Reason one.

iii. Pro. Reason two, three or more.

iv. Contra. Scoring point and reason one.

v.  Contra. Reasons two, three or more.

vi.  Summary, Balance and Appeal.  

WRITING SKILL: ESSAY

Essay is a short piece of writing on a given subject. There is an expression of personal ideas or thoughts of a person on a subject in it.

HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY

At the time of writing an essay, the following points should be kept in view :-

1.  Pleasant appearance :- Keeping the rules of grammar in mind, the essay should be written in a good manner.

2.  Proper selection of the subject :- The subject should be selected only when we have sufficient and proper information relating to it. Prefer the most appropriate. First of all collect the work material. Begin by writing down all your ideas on the given subject in the form of brief notes. These ideas on the subject may be had by asking yourself a sequence of questions. When sufficient stock of ideas is accumulated, retrench it. Choose which is really important. Keep in mind that no idea should be repeated.

3.  Planning :- Implement four steps in planning: think, arrange, write and revise. Keep the stock of your ideas in an order according to a definite plan. Your ideas will be separated into definite divisions. Every one of these divisions will make a paragraph. A brief outline should be made under the main heads before beginning writing the essay, in which your ideas is to be put in order. Make your collected ideas in order in each main head. In this way, unimportant ideas will be liable to be rejected. Be careful that each idea really relates to the main head under which it falls. Do not think longer; immediately put down your ideas. Revise it to correct.

4.  Proportion :- There is a beginning, a middle and an end in an essay. Exert proper emphasis on every part after dividing the essay into paragraphs. Keep a paragraph under every main head. In this way, you will able to keep four-five essays in an essay. As far as possible, try to indicate relation of a paragraph with other. Keep to right point. Look whether every detail is present in its correct position. Keep in view the following points in your paragraph :-   

i.   The paragraph must fall under only one main head.

ii. There should be small and big paragraphs. They should be of different length.

iii. Keep in mind that first and the last paragraph should attract. First sentence generally expresses the topic and the last states the sum up.

iv. There must be a logical sequence of thought in each paragraph. They should be kept in order according to their importance or order.

v. There should a relationship among all the paragraphs in a proper way according to the directions of the plan.

5.  Perspicuity :- It means simplicity, brevity and precision. Assess your ideas before you write. Write in simple language. Be lucid and clear.

6.  Persuasiveness :- The essay should be attractive and impressive. It should be not stale but fresh, not trite but original, not wooden but lively and imaginative, not monotonous but varied, not spineless but vigorous, and not faded but vivid.

PARTS OF AN ESSAY

Generally an essay is divided into three parts :-

1.  The Introduction :- In a small essay, it should be very brief. It should not be bigger than the body of the essay. There is generally a very small paragraph in it. But it should always be attractive and interesting. Definition or expression of title is given in the introduction. Sometimes it may include a summary or general remark concerning the topic given in it.

2.  The Body of the Essay :- It is the main part of the Essay. It contains facts, illustrations and the reflections of the writer on the given topic. At this point, you should follow your outline finely. The paragraphs should be constructed well. The proper relation of one paragraph with other should be expressed. Always keep to the point.

3.  The Conclusion: - Like beginning, the end should also be short and striking. It should be natural. Be careful that the essay should not come to an end abruptly. A simple sentence, many a times, if expressed properly, represents a good end. A suitable way to end an essay is convey a brief summary of thought contained in the mid of the essay. 

CUE CARDS

Cue cards, also known as note cards, are cards with words written on them that help actors and speakers remember what they have to say. It is a card that can be seen by someone (such as an actor) who is performing or speaking on a stage or on television and that shows the words that the person is supposed to say.

How to make cue cards

You need a packet of standard index cards, a selection of highlighters, (for example, yellow, pink, blue and green), and an easily-read pen. I suggest using one with either blue or black ink. Making cue cards from standard office supply index or note cards (like those in the photograph) is relatively easy. Using them well will lift the quality of your presentation immeasurably.

Why? The answer is simple. Because you are not relying on, and reading from, a word-for-word text, you are free to interact with your audience. You are able to make eye contact, respond, gesture and move freely. You will sound, look and feel more present; "in the moment". Your entire delivery is enlivened.  Give yourself time to thoroughly rehearse. You'll be delighted with the result.

Writing up your cue cards

Each segment of your speech, from its introduction to conclusion, should be reducible to a key word or phrase that will act as a prompt triggering your memory for what it was you wanted to say. Go through your outline marking each of them. A good way to identify them is to remember the paragraphing structure that you use in written prose. A new thought or idea takes a new paragraph. In writing note cards a new idea or thought equals a new card.

The best (most useful) cue cards have ONE main heading or idea per card, are written clearly using larger than usual font (so you can read them easily), have plenty of white space around each word or phrase to help them stand out, use bullet points or numbers to itemize the supporting ideas under the main heading, are written on ONE side of the card only, are clearly numbered so that you know the order they come in and/or they may even be tied together, are color-coded to show your main idea, supporting ideas, examples and transitions or links. If you find you're going over you can adjust by leaving out an extra example or conversely if you're under time, you can add one in.

Preparing your speech for cue cards

Once you have the length right for your time allowance, if possible get other people to listen to you. Have them give you feedback on content, structure and delivery; paying particular attention to the introduction and the close. When you're satisfied you have your speech as you want it, you're ready to prepare it for cue cards.

DESCRIBE AN INTERESTING PERSON YOU HAVE MET

You should say:
1.  Who he/she was
2.  Where you met him/her
3.  What was special about him/her
And explain why this person was interesting.

Well, I love to meet new people. Today, I would like to talk about a charismatic person I met a year ago. Last year I was going to Amritsar by train for an official meeting. On the way, a young lady boarded the train from a small railway station. She occupied the seat in front of me. Very soon we started talking about our hobbies, studies and work etc. Her name was Nitika Walia. She was a second-year student of Punjab Technical University. One particular thing which made her quite special was her high confidence level. Normally, girls don’t travel alone in my country. In most cases, they are accompanied by their parents or some other family member. But, since she was on her own, that clearly reflected her boldness. I found this girl very interesting. Her in-depth knowledge of latest technology and space science made me re-think about my opinion about females. I used to think that Indian women are only interested in fashion. Science is not their cup of tea. But, this meeting was a real mind-changer. She helped open my eyes towards the common attitude of ignorance males have towards females regarding their intelligence. Now, I fully understand that women have the potential to succeed in any field.

  

CLASSIFICATION OF PARAGRAPHS

 

According to nature of the paragraphs, they are classified in the following categories:-

(1) Narrative Paragraphs: - An event or a series of events  is narrated in them. Their purpose is to present the series of real or imaginary events in a reliable way.

A Holiday Excursion

Our annual examination was over. We were free. My friend suggested a trip on bicycles. We decided to cycle to the Holy Golden Temple and back. We set off in high spirits early in the morning. We carried with us baskets of fruit, sweets, pastries and cakes. We soon got away from the noisy streets and smoky town. It was spring time. On either side of the road stretched fields of ripe corn, lit up by the bright sunshine and standing ready for harvest. Soon we reached the Holy Golden Temple. It was worth seeing. Its dome and roof were covered with gold. They glittered and shone very brightly in the sun. The worshippers were reciting sacred hymns. We were highly excited to look at such an extraordinary view.

(2) Descriptive Paragraphs: - They may contain a description of a person, place or thing in them. Their purpose is to present a picture.

A Good Neighbour

A good neighbour is a fortunate thing. I am lucky enough to have one such neighbour. He is always ready to forgo his comfort for the sake of others. His grown-up experience is at all times there to guide everyone whenever one stands in need of it. He is never found deficient whenever anyone needs his advice or help. He is a compassionate and sensitive man. He is the most generous man I have ever seen. I seek advice from him in all significant matters. He is a source of great strength and relief to me whenever I feel unhappy. He is so kind and good to everyone that I occasionally feel that life would not be a pleasure without him. He is very gentle and friendly that he has nearly become a member of my family. Such a neighbour is, without a doubt, a great blessing in life.

(3) Reflective Paragraphs: - They may include such views or reflections as are generally of abstract nature. Their purpose is to express personal views.

Union is Strength

It is an admitted fact that unity is strength whereas disunity is weakness. A united family, a united society and a united country are strong. However, those who are divided or split up into factions or groups are all feeble. In case of a football or hockey team, if the members of a team play as one in co-operation with one-another, they will form a strong group. On the other hand, if such members play their own game, they will certainly be beaten up. How strong the individual player may be. Similarly, if a political party is strong, it can defend against the attacks of the opposition as long as all the members of the party speak with one voice. In the same way, an army must fight as one man to win a battle.

(4) Expository Paragraphs: - They hold explanation of a topic. Their purpose is to shed light on the meaning. 

Kindness to Animals

Making kindness and justice to animals is an essential part of human virtue. Animals also claim our love and sympathy, not only because they are dumb and helpless but also because they are so useful to us. Cruelty to animals hardens our heart and creates in us a callous and unsympathetic nature which is a great penalty to human race. Even in the age of mechanical civilization, we cannot do without them. Kindness to animals is rewarded by God. We must practise kindness to animals. We can show our kindness to them by providing domestic and agricultural animals with proper food, water and shelter. We can send them to veterinary hospital when they are ill. We can report the cases of cruelty to animals to the nearest police station and thus bringing the offenders to book. We must discourage hunting for mere sport and wanton slaughter of animals for food. It is our moral duty to treat dumb animals with kindness and sympathy, especially when they are helpless and wholly dependent on our care and protection.

(5) Imaginative Paragraphs: - An imagination plays a free role in them. Their purpose is to express an imagination into words.

If I were a Dictator

If I were a Dictator, I would have been not only an omnipotent person in any sphere but also an unelected omnipotent ruler. Being a domineering person, I would have got absolute power centralized in my hands. Under such a circumstance, I would have taken the currupt politicians to task who do not care for their country so much as for their selfish ends. I would also have taken the false patriots to task who serve the country to satisfy their own private interests. I would not have tolerated that abuses should flourish in my country because I love her more than anything else. The policy of a dictator is to be powerful first and anything else afterwards. However, I would have refused to follow the time-honoured maxim, ‘Everything is fair in love and war’. I would have thought a hundred times before involving my country in war. My sincere desire would have been to serve my country in all possible ways because I am proud of my country.

WRITING SKILL: PARAGRAPH

 

A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. Paragraph is a distinct section of a piece of writing, beginning on a new often indented line. A sentence holds a single thought in it, similarly, a paragraph has a main topic. All the sentences in a paragraph should be collected in such a way as they develop the main topic.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD PARAGRAPH

Like a good sentence, there should be following qualities in a good paragraph:-

i.     Unity

ii.    Order

iii. Variety

1. Unity :- A paragraph must not have more than one main topic. If it holds more main topics, it will be an absurd paragraph. The test of a good paragraph is that its theme may be presented in a sentence which is called topic-sentence. Therefore, a good paragraph is an essay in itself which can be given a title.

2. Order :- In a good paragraph, ideas should always be presented in a clear and logical order. The events should be given in the order of their occurrence. All ideas must be connected to the main thought and they should be in accordance of their importance or order.

3. Variety :- At last, a good paragraph should include both small and big sentences. It should contain sentences of different length and different make in it.

HOW TO WRITE A PARAGRAPH  

The following points should be kept in mind for writing a good paragraph :-

1.  Think out the points upon which you wish to write :- For getting such points, make questions about the topic and think of their answers. Their answers will help you to develop the points

2. Having got the points, arrange them in proper order: - Important points should be discussed first, and secondary later on.

3. Do not deal with more than one main theme in your paragraph :- All the points must be connected to the main theme.

4. Make the first and last sentences of your paragraph most attractive: - The very first sentence should arise the interest of the reader, and the last one satisfies it. A smaller sentence, quite suitable, makes a good beginning.

5. Make your sentences short and varied in length :- Keep in mind that each sentence you write should be clear and complete.

6. Revise what you have written :-Remove all mistakes in spelling, grammar and punctuation etc. Make sure that your paragraph looks like a small essay to read.

 

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EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES (NARRATION)

 

The following specific rules should be kept in mind in addition to general rules at the time of changing direct speech to indirect speech in exclamatory sentences:-

1. According to sense of interjection, introductory verb is replaced with ‘exclaim’/ ‘wish’/ ‘bless’/ ‘pray’/ ‘cry’/ ‘declare’ etc. ‘With regret’/ ‘with surprise’/ ‘with sorrow’/ ‘with delight’ or ‘joy’ are used where needed. Interjections are the words which exhibit sudden emotion or feeling. Removing all interjections and exclamations, their sense is brought out by phrases:

Interjection can show:

Joy	: Ha! ha! Hurrah!
Sorrow	: Ah! oh! Alas! Curse it!
Admiration	: Well done! Bravo! Well, well, well!
Surprise or wonder	: What! ho! ho!
Hatred or contempt	: Pooh! tut! tut! Pshaw!
Rebuke or Reproach	: Fie! Fie!
Attention	: Look! Hush! Hark!

Some words showing grief are used to show sudden emotion; as:- Ah me! Good heaven! Good God! Good gracious! For shame!

2. Comma (,) and inverted comma (“…”) are replaced with ‘that’ following reporting verb.

3. Note of exclamation (!) is replaced with Full stop (.) at the end of the sentence.

a. Direct     : The Soldiers said, “Hurrah! We have defeated the enemy.”

   Indirect  : The Soldiers exclaimed with joy that they had defeated the enemy.

b. Direct     : The little girl said, “Alas! My parents are no more.”

   Indirect  : The little girl exclaimed with sorrow that her parents were no more.

c.  Direct     : The captain said, “Bravo! You have done well.”

    Indirect  : The captain applauded them saying that they had done well.

d. Direct     : He said, “What a pity! I am so late.”

   Indirect  : He regretted that he was so late.

e.  Direct     : She said, “What! You of all the persons!”

    Indirect  : She wondered that it was I of all the persons.

f.  Direct     : My father said, “What a strange coincidence!”

   Indirect  : My father exclaimed with surprise that it was a strange coincidence.

g. Direct     : He said, “What a pretty rose!”

   Indirect  : He exclaimed that it was a very pretty rose.

h. Direct     : She said, “How stiff the question paper is!”

   Indirect  : She exclaimed that the question paper was very stiff.

i.  Direct     : He said, “Good bye! Mohan.”

    Indirect  : He bade Mohan good bye.

j.  Direct     : The wise man said, “Goodbye, my sons!”

   Indirect  : The wise man addressed them as sons and bade them goodbye.

k. Direct     : She said to them, “Congratulation! You have done well.”

   Indirect  : She congratulated them saying that they had done well.

l.  Direct     : He said, “Oh God! What a disaster!”

    Indirect  : He cried out in despair that it was a great disaster.

m. Direct     : She said, “Alas! How foolish I have been!”

    Indirect  : She confessed with regret that she had been very foolish.

n. Direct     : He said, “By God! I did not complain against you.”

    Indirect  : He swore that he had not complained against me.

o. Direct     : Ram said, “Good night! Friends.”

   Indirect  : Ram bade his friends good night.

OPTATIVE SENTENCES

A wish or prayer is found in optative sentences. The following specific rules should be kept in mind in addition to general rules at the time of changing direct speech to indirect speech in them:-

1. Reporting verb is changed according to sense. If wish is introduced, ‘said to’ is replaced with ‘wished’. But if there is a strong desire, ‘said to’ is replaced with ‘strongly desired’. In case of prayer, ‘said to’ is replaced with ‘prayed’.

2. Comma (,) and inverted comma (“…”) are replaced with ‘that’ following reporting verb.

3. Note of exclamation (!) is replaced with Full stop (.) at the end of the sentence.

a. Direct     : She said to me, “May you live long!”

   Indirect  : She wished that I might live long.

b. Direct     : The poor man said, “Would that I were rich!”

   Indirect  : The poor man wished that he had been rich.

c.  Direct     : He said, “May God bless you with a son!”

    Indirect  : He prayed that God might bless her with a son.

d. Direct     : The old man said, “O for a glass of water!”

   Indirect  : The old man strongly desired for a glass of water.

e.  Direct     : The beggar said, “O for a morsel of food!”

    Indirect  : The beggar cried out for a morsel of food.

f.  Direct     : The old woman said, “May you live long, my son!”

   Indirect  : The old woman addressed him as son and prayed that he might live long.

g. Direct     : She said, “Good morning, madam!”

   Indirect  : She respectfully wished good morning to her.

h. Direct     : He said, “God! save the king.”

   Indirect  : He prayed that God might save the king.

i.  Direct     : He said, “O God! Give me strength to bear this loss.”

    Indirect  : He prayed to God to give him strength to bear that loss.

j.  Direct     : He said to them, “Welcome!”

    Indirect  : He welcomed them.